The present article is devised to deduce the new principles of new conceptualization of Cartesian doubt based on epistemological criticisms of Protagoras Sophist doubts. The findings of this study indicate that Descartes'epistemic style in a cross-sectional skepticism, Conjecture, discontinuous epistemic deterrence, intrinsic independence and self-centeredness of man, quantitativeism, criticism, rule of thumb, and coherence are criticized for the principles of teaching-learning in the educational system. One of these criticisms is the critiques made by the Protagoras Sophist doubts for cartesian doubts on the presentation of general rules, originality and equality of reason, the agent, the degree and criterion of truth, epistemic structuralism, the unification and classification of sciences, skepticism procedure and the search of truth, Criticism and denial of cultural-social conditions and in order to overcome this gap and defects, from its point of view, it has been redesigned. And with the inference of persistent research criticism, critical criticism, qualitative deterrence, artisticism, multiple self-orientation, the combination of horizons, representations-distribution of it in teaching-learning, it has hindered dogmatism and a systemic suspicion in Cartesian doubts.

Discussion of the many faces of relativism occupies a highly prominent place in the epistemological literature. Protagoras in ancient Greece and Nelson Goodman in the modern period are two most notable proponent of relativism. In the present article, I discuss and explain relativistic approaches of this two important relativist. I will first briefly define and review some faces of relativism. Then I will discuss and elaborate Protagorean or true-for-me relativism and Goodman’s radical relativism in turn. I will argue that there are crucial difficulties in Protagorean and radical relativism, and that these difficulties, as the realist philosophers insist, make these two faces of relativism be undefensible. No doubt, these two shapes of relativism have paved the way for anti-realism. In the end, it will appear that Goodman’s radical relativism and so the theory of world making, like Protagorean relativism, suffers from a fatal flaw: the flaw of self-refuting.

The essence of faith is a controversial issue, especially among Muslim and, more prevalently, among Christian thinkers. In this connection, the relation between faith and doubt is one of the main cases of the differences of this controversy. In an attempt to pin down the sources of these differences, this paper trace their roots to matters such as differences in the contents of religious beliefs, the theoretical presuppositions of the religious thinkers, the different socio-political experiences of the religious societies and, finally, the differences in the intellectual-philosophical currents affecting these two religious fields. Admitting the important role of the last component, one can expect that the rapid growth of communications as the main channel of exchange of ideas may create opportunities for the Islamic thought to come into contact with rival and opposing views on account of which the Islamic Faith may face the same challenges that Christianity had to confront in recent centuries. This article, by using a concept analytical method toward explaining the relationship between faith and doubt, adopts an epistemological approach called constructivist realism as a basis for Islamic Faith and maintains that contrary to the belief by certain circles of Christianity, doubt cannot be regarded as an integral element of faith. Although the existence of doubt is undeniable, it is not a challenger vis-a-vis faith. This premise seems to predispose Islamic education to, on the one hand, promote tolerance regarding doubt and to emphasize effort and motivation for attaining certainty on the other.

oubt in the transaction” occurs when the definite conclusion of the two parties of the transaction concern to uncertain parts of two or more than to things. The majority Shiite jurisprudents, as well as some jurists have prohibited the uncertainty in transaction and considered it to be harmful for reasons such as consensus, invoking to some narrations, the impossibility of availability of uncertain thing, ambiguity, risk, non-applicability of such transactions, foolishness of this act, analogous to uncertain compromising, and incorrectness of the concluding of the contract. Iran’ s civil law, following the majority, has necessitated “ the defined subject” for the correctness of the transaction. By criticizing the reasons of the prohibition of doubting in transaction, and also by referring to reasons such as generalities, invoking to the traditions regarding marriage, uncertain testament and vow, the present article has determined the validity of the transaction that its subject is uncertain and made possible spreading its validity to the assumption that the collection that consists of the things that have different prices. And in the end, it has suggested two solutions of stipulation and drawing lots for determining the subject of the transaction.

In the discussion of Descartes’ doubt, it is often an emphasis on a few elements or components without a focus on those elements one by one.This article is intended to focus on doubt in Descartes ' philosophy and with an analytical philosophical look on his views and works introduce the different aspects of doubt as they mesh to form a net in his philosophy. To this end, the article deals with a number of elements like definition, criterion, framework, aim, principles, kinds, justification, domain, limits, etc. The purpose is to suggest that through considering these different elements one by one and as a whole we can see Descartes’doubt from the horizon of an independent philosophical theory.

There are so many different varieties in the Victorian poetry of subject-imagery, tone and diction that one might conclude that one might conclude that this multiplicity is n itself the chief characteristic of the Victorian poetry. The growth of the natural sciences and of tendencies in social and political life, philosophy, and religion led to the minimization of poetry and even hostility toward it. Paradoxically, alongside this devaluation of the poet and poetry, there is a growing emphasis on the prophetic nature of the poet. Alfred Lord Tennyson, spoke directly to his age as an inspiring prophet and preacher committed to middle-class ideals. Arnold, as a poet and critic argued, poets guided culture by offering contact with ‘the great primary human affections’. In the Victorian period, in particular, religious faith had to face difficulties that perhaps no other period had yet experienced to the same degree. Three movements of thoughts made onslaught upon the stronghold of orthodoxy: a new approach to the authority of the Scriptures, the emergence of evolutionary theories, and the growth of positivism. The dominant Victorian poetic genre was the lyric, focusing most usually on themes of nature, love, religion and death. Victorian lyricism was primarily elegiac, expressing nostalgia for lost happiness and meditating on flux as the essential quality of the modern human condition. Dramatic verse appealed to the Victorians’ fascination with the human personality, and dramatic monologue was appealing most of all. Through his religious poems, Browning tried to find a secure ground foe his faith. He found this secure ground in the final triumph of “right”, which was based upon his belief in “Divine Love.” For Browning, love in human heart was the best evidence of God’s providential love. Arnold’s allusion to thee classical Greek in a reflection on the “long, withdrawing roar” of the Victorian “Sa of Faith” brings consolation by suggesting that heroic predecessors experience similar anguish over lost ideals.